Pharmacological basis for the medicinal use of Viola odorata in diarrhea, bronchial asthma and hypertension
Abstract
Viola odorata is traditionally used in the management of gastrointestinal, respiratory and vascular disorders. The present study was undertaken to validate its folkloric uses. The application of V. odorata to spontaneous contractions in isolated rabbit jejunum preparation exerted relaxant effect through decrease in magnitude and frequency of contractions. Moreover, it also caused relaxation of K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions and shifted the Ca2+ concentration response curves toward right in isolated jejunum similar to verapamil (standard Ca2+ channel blocker), confirming Ca2+ channel blocking activity. V. odorata also caused relaxation of carbachol (1 µM)- and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions in isolated rabbit tracheal preparations comparable to verapamil, reflecting that observed relaxant effect may be the outcome of anti-muscarinic and/or Ca2+ channel blocking activities. It also exerted relaxant effect on phenylephrine (1 µM)- and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions in isolated rabbit aortic preparations thus providing rationale for its folkloric uses to treat diarrhea, asthma and hypertension.
Introduction
Viola odorata, Linn. (Violaceae), locally called banafsha, is widely distributed throughout the world including Pakistan (Said, 1972; Baquar, 1989). The plant has traditionally been used to manage bronchial asthma, cough, bronchitis (Nadkarni, 1976; Pullaiah, 2006), anxiety (Keville, 1991) and hypertension (Duke et al., 2002). It is also used as expectorant and laxative (Ahmad et al., 2009).
The plant is reported to possess antioxidant (Ebrahimzadeh et al., 2010), diuretic, laxative (Vishal et al., 2009), analgesic (Barkatullah et al., 2012), anti-inflammatory (Koochek et al., 2003), antipyretic (Khattak et al., 1985), sedative (Alireza and Ali, 2013), hypotensive and lipid lowering effect (Siddiqi et al., 2012). Moreover, it has been reported to possess antibacterial (Ramezani et al., 2012; Khan et al., 2011), anthelmintic activity (Colgrave et al., 2008), antifungal (Pawar and Thaker, 2006) and mosquito repellant activity (Amer and Mehlhorn, 2006).
The qualitative investigation revealed presence of violanthin, flavonoids, glycosides (Khare, 2007), stigmasterol (Mittal, 2013), violaquercetin, saponins, alkaloids, vitamins (Kathi, 1991), phenols (Ebrahimzadeh, 2010), glucosides, violin (Prajapati et al., 2004), violanthin and violanin (Rastogi, 1979), vanillic acid (Evans, 1996), benzofuranone (Akhbari et al., 2012), glucopyranosides, (Karioti et al., 2011), shikimic acid (Anca et al., 2009), cycloviolacin, (Rosengren et al., 2003; Craik et al., 1999), dimethyldodecane (Cu et al., 1992), dimethylheptane (Beierbeck and Saunders, 1980), glucopyranoside (Henrick and Jefferies, 1964), violacin (Ireland et al., 2006) and peptide (Svangård et al., 2003).
odorata has the folkoric repute of providing relief in ailments pertaining to gastrointestinal, respiratory and cardiovascular system. The present study was under-taken to validate its folkloric uses in native systems of medicine.
Materials and Methods
Plant material and preparation of extract
The aerial parts of V. odorata were collected in May, 2012 from the botanical garden of Pakistan Institute of Forestry, University of Peshawar and were identified by the kind cooperation of an expert taxonomist (Prof. Altaf Ahmad Dasti), at the Institute of Pure and Applied Biology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan.
The plant material was shade dried and rendered free of adulterants by manual picking and was grinded to coarse powder with special herbal grinder. The powdered material (1 kg) was macerated in 70% aqueousmethanol for 2 weeks with occasional shaking. The soaked material was passed through a muslin cloth to remove the vegetative debris and the fluid obtained was subsequently filtered through a Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The filtrate was evaporated on a rotary evaporator (Rotavapor, BUCHI labrotechnik AG, Model 9230, Switzerland) at 40ºC under reduced pressure to dark brown thick paste like semisolid material. The percentage yield of crude V. odorata was calculated to be 7.3% approximately. The extract obtained was stored in amber colored air tight jars at -40ºC.
Chemicals
Acetylcholine chloride, atropine sulfate, carbachol, histamine, potassium chloride, verapamil hydrochloride and phenylephrine, magnesium chloride, ethylenetetraacetic acid (EDTA) were purchased form Sigma Chemicals Co. (USA). Calcium chloride, glucose, magnesium sulfate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium dihydrogen phosphate, and methanol were obtained from Merck, Darmstadt, Germany. Ammonium hydroxide, sodium chloride, and sodium hydroxide were purchased from BDH Laboratory supplies, Poole, England.
The chemicals used in these experiments were of highest purity and analytical research grade. Stock solutions and subsequent dilutions were made fresh in distilled water on the day of experiment. The drugs were solubilized in vehicles which were without any effect on tissue contractility in control and experiments.
Animals and housing conditions
Animals (♂/♀) used in this study were local strain rabbits (1.0-1.8 kg). These were housed under controlled environmental condition (23-25ºC) at the animal house of Faculty of Pharmacy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan. Rabbits were provided with refresh green fodder and tap water ad libitum. The animals were deprived of food 24 hours prior to the experiments but were given free access to water. Rabbits were sacrificed following a blow on the back of head to use for in vitro studies.
Preliminary phytochemical analysis
The crude extract of V. odorata was subjected to qualitative phytochemical analysis for the presence of alkaloids, saponins, anthraquinones, coumarins, sterols, terpenes, flavonoids and phenols (Janbaz and Saqib, 2015).
In vitro experiment
Isolated tissues experiments were performed as described previously (Janbaz et al., 2013).
Isolated rabbit jejunum preparations
Plant extract was tested on isolated rabbit jejunum preparations for possible presence of spasmogenic and/or spasmolytic activity. Isolated rabbit jejunum segments of approximately 2 cm in length were suspended in isolated tissue baths containing Tyrode’s solution, at 37ºC, aerated with carbogen (95%O2 and 5%CO2). The composition of the Tyrode’s solution (mM) was: KCl (2.68), NaC1 (136.9), MgC12 (1.05), NaHCO3 (11.9), NaH2PO4 (0.42), CaC12 (1.8) and glucose (5.55). A preload of 1 g was applied and intestinal responses were recorded isotonically through Power Lab data acquisition system (AD Instruments, Sydney, Australia) attached to a computer installed with lab chart software (version 7.1). The tissues were allowed to equilibrate for at least 30 min prior to the addition of any drug. Isolated rabbit jejunum preparations exhibit spontaneous rhythmic contractions and allowed testing of the antispasmodic (relaxant) effect without application of an agonist (Janbaz et al., 2015a; Saqib et al., 2012). The observed response of the test material was quantified by the application of doses in a cumulative fashion. The relaxant effects on the part of test substance were taken as the percent change in spontaneous contractions of the preparation recorded immediately before the addition of test substances.
The possible mechanism of the relaxant activity of the test material was investigated through the relaxation of the observed sustained spasmodic contractions following exposure to high concentration of K+ (80 mM) (Farre et al, 1991). The test material was applied in a cumulative manner to the sustained contractions to achieve concentration dependent inhibitory responses (van Rossum, 1963). The observed relaxant effect of the test material on K+ (80 mM)-induced contraction was expressed as percent of the control contractile response.
Calcium channel blocking effect of the test substance was confirmed by the method described previously (Janbaz et al., 2015b). The isolated rabbit jejunum preparation was allowed to stabilize in normal Tyrode’s solution, which was subsequently replaced for 30 min with Ca2+-free Tyrode’s solution to which EDTA (0.1 mM) was added in order to remove calcium from the tissue. This bath solution was further replaced with K+-rich and Ca2+-free Tyrode’s solution, having the following composition (mM): KC1 (50), NaCl (91.04), MgCl2 (1.05), NaHCO3 (11.9), NaH2PO4 (0.42), glucose (5.55) and EDTA (0.1). Subsequent to an incubation period of 30 min, cumulative Ca2+ concentrations were applied to the tissue bath to obtain control calcium dose-response curves. On achievement of the super-imposable control calcium dose-response curves (usually after two cycles), the tissues were then washed and allowed to equilibrated with the plant extract for 1 hour and then the concentration response curves of Ca2+ were recorded and compared to the control curves. The dose-response curves of Ca2+ were recorded in the presence of different concentrations of the plant extract in tissue bath (Janbaz et al., 2015b)
Isolated rabbit tracheal preparations
Rabbit tracheas were dissected out and kept in Kreb's solution having the following composition (mM): NaCl (118.2), NaHCO3 (25), CaCl2 (2.5), KCl (4.7), KH2PO4 (1.3) MgSO4 (1.2) and glucose (11.7). The trachea was cleaned free from the surrounding fatty tissues and rings of 2-3 mm width containing 2-3 cartilages were prepared. Each ring was opened by a longitudinal incision on the ventral side opposite to the smooth muscles layer to form a strip with smooth muscles layer in middle and cartilages on both sides. These tracheal preparations were mounted in 20 mL organ bath containing Krebs solution being maintained at 37ºC and aerated with carbogen. A preload tension of 1 g was applied and tissue preparations were allowed to be equilibrated for 1 hour prior to any challenge by the drug. Tissue preparations were stabilized by repeated applications of carbachol (1 µM) until constant responses were recorded. The carbachol (1 µM)- and high K+ (80 mM)-induced sustained contractions were subsequently used for testing of different doses of the test material in a cumulative fashions. The isometric responses were recorded through Power Lab data acquisition system (AD Instruments, Sydney, Australia) attached to a computer installed with lab chart software (Version 7.1). The standard drug with Ca2+ channel blocking effect (verapamil) was tested on high K+ (80 mM)- and carbachol-induced spastic contractions in order to confirm the possible mechanism of action(Janbaz et al., 2014a)
Isolated rabbit aorta preparation
To see the effect of plant extract on systemic vascular resistance, rabbits of either sex were sacrificed by a blow on the back of head and descending thoracic aorta was dissected out and kept in the normal Kreb’s solution having composition as described earlier. It was then cut into rings of about 2-3 mm width and each ring was mounted in a tissue bath containing Kreb's solution. Temperature was maintained at 37ºC and tissue was continuously aerated with carbogel. A preload of 2 g was applied to each preparation and allowd to equilibrate for a period of 1 hour. After equilibrium, tissue was stabilized by repeated exposure to K+ (80 mM) or phenylephrine (1 µM) depending upon the protocol of the experiment. The vasorelaxant/ vasoconstrictive effects of the test substances were studied by addition in tissue organ baths containing pre-stabilized tissue in a cumulative manner (Janbaz et al., 2014b). Changes in isometric tension of aortic rings were obtained via force-displacement transducer (Model FORT100, WPI, USA) coupled to Power Lab data acquisition system (AD Instruments, Sydney, Australia) and computer running Lab Chart software (version 7.1).
Statistical analysis
The data was expressed as mean ± standard error of mean (S.E.M., n = 5) and median effective concentration (EC50) with 95% confidence interval (CI). The statistics applied was Student's t-test. The logarithmic, dose/concentration-response curves of different treatments were analyzed by non-linear regression using computer software (Graph Pad Software, San Diego, CA, USA).
Results
Preliminary phytochemical analysis of V. odorata revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, steroids, terpenes, saponins and tannins among the methanol soluble extractable constituents of V. odorata.
Effect on isolated rabbit jejunum preparations
The crude extract of V. odorata on application to the spontaneously contracting isolated rabbit jejunum preparations exerted relaxant effect in tissue bath concentration dependent manner with EC5o value of 0.05 mg/mL (95% CI: 0.03-0.08 mg/mL; n=5). Moreover, it caused complete relaxation of K+ (80 mM)-induced contraction with EC50 value of 0.41 mg/mL (95% CI: 0.14-1.15 mg/mL; n=5). Verapamil (standard Ca2+ channel blockers), relaxed the spontaneous and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions with respective EC50 values of 0.49 µM (95% CI: 0.35- 0.73 µM; n=5) and 0.33 µM (95% CI: 0.16-0.66 µM; n=5) (Figure 1). Furthermore, extract of plant also caused rightward shift of concentration response curves for Ca2+ in a manner comparable to verapamil in isolated rabbit jejunum preparations (Figure 2).
Figure 1: Effect of crude extract of V. odorata (Vo. Cr) (A) andverapamil (B) on spontaneous and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions in isolated rabbit jejunum preparations (values are expressed as mean ± S.E.M.; n=5)
Figure 2: Effect of crude extract of V. odorata (Vo. Cr) (A) and verapamil (B) on concentration-response curves for Ca2+ in isolated rabbit jejunum preparations (values are expressed as mean ± S.E.M.; n=5)
Effect on isolated rabbit tracheal preparations
The crude extract of V. odorata exerted relaxant effect on application to carbachol (1 µM) and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions in isolated rabbit tracheal preparations with respective EC50 values of 0.54 mg/mL (95% CI: 0.30-0.96 mg/mL; n=5) and 0.68 mg/mL (95% CI: 0.37-1.24 mg/mL; n=5). Similarly, verapamil also caused relaxation of carbachol (1 µM) and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions with respective EC50 values of 2.15 µM (95% CI: 0.03-4.26 µM; n=5) and 0.32 µM (95% CI: 0.02-0.62 µM; n=5) (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Effect of crude extract of V. odorata (Vo. Cr)(A) and verapamil (B) on carbachol (1 µM) and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions in isolated rabbit tracheal preparations (values are expressed as mean ± S.E.M.; n=5)
Effect on isolated rabbit aortic preparations
The V. odorata crude extract on application to isolated rabbit aortic preparation, exerted relaxant effect on phenylephrine (1 µM)-induced contractions in isolated rabbit aortic preparations up to the extent of 5 mg/mL tissue bath concentrations with EC50 values of 5.37 mg/mL (95% CI: 3.97-6.65 mg/mL; n=5), whereas K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions in isolated rabbit aorta were relaxed at lower tissue bath concentrations with EC50 values of 1.5 mg/mL (95% CI: 0.34-6.66 mg/mL; n=5).
The standard Ca2+ channel blocker (verapamil), relaxed the phenylephrine (1 µM) and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions with respective EC50 of 1.08 mg/mL (95% CI: 0.08-2.52; n=5) and 0.55 mg/mL (95%CI: 0.04-2.10; n=5) (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Effect of crude extract of V. odorata (Vo. Cr) (A) and verapamil (B) on phenylephrine (PE) (1 µM) and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions in isolated rabbit aortic preparations (values are expressed as mean ± S.E.M.; n=5)
Discussion
Preliminary phytochemical analysis of V. odorata revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, steroids, terpenes, saponins and tannins among the constituents of V. odorata.
The V. odorata exerted relaxant effect on spontaneous contractions in isolated rabbit jejunum preparation, i.e., exhibiting antispasmodic activity. Studies reported on plant materials reflected antispasmodic activity may possibly be mediated through blockade of Ca2+ channels (Janbaz et al., 2015b). The contractile activities of smooth muscle preparations, i.e., isolated rabbit jejunum preparations is mediated through increase/decrease of cytoplasmic free Ca2+ concentration (Karaki et al., 1997). The intracellular Ca2+ concentration is known to be increased either influx through voltage dependent Ca+2 channels or Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic stores (Godfraind et al., 1986). The spontaneous contractions in isolated rabbit jejunum preparations are manifestation of alternative depolarization and repolarization, where tissues at height of depolarization, permit fast influx of Ca2+ through voltage dependent Ca+2 channels (Brading, 1981). Thus, the spasmolytic effect on the part of V. odorata may possibly be mediated through either blockade of voltage dependent Ca+2 channels or suppression of Ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum. The isolated smooth muscle preparations on exposure to K+ (80 mM) exhibit sustained contractile activity due to rapid influx of extracellular Ca2+ through opened voltage dependent Ca+2 channels (Bolton, 1979; Godfrained et al., 1986) and relaxant effect of extract on K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions may possibly mediated through Ca2+ channel blockade (van Rossum, 1963). The above-mentioned findings were confirmed further as extract treatment in isolated rabbit jejunum preparation caused decreased response to Ca2+ and rightward shift of the concentration response curves for Ca2+ in a manner similar to verapamil as standard Ca2+ channel blocker (Fleckenstein, 1977). The Ca2+ channel blockers is an established class of therapeutic agents and are known to be effective in hyperactive diseases of the gut (Brunton et al., 1996).
The V. odorata caused relaxation of carbachol (1 µM)- and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions in isolated rabbit tracheal preparations in a manner comparable to verapamil and is possibly mediated through blockade of Ca2+ channels. The Ca2+ channel blockers are useful bronchodilator in conditions of increased sensitivity of the airway (Ahmed, 1992), hence this study provided a scientific basis to validate traditional uses of V. odorata, Linn. in the management of respiratory disorders including asthma, cough and bronchitis.
The V. odorata caused complete relaxation of the phenylephrine (1 µM)- and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions in isolated rabbit aorta preparations, however, phenylephrine-induced contractions were found to be relaxed at elevated tissue bath concentrations. The isolated rabbit aorta preparations have been used for characterization of Ca2+ channel blocking activities (Janbaz et al., 2014b), which on exposed to K+ (80 mM), resulted in contraction of smooth muscles via opening of voltage dependent Ca2+ channels. The increase in intracellular Ca2+ due to increased influx of Ca2+ can cause further Ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum (Gurney, 1994; Karaki et al., 1997). Similarly, phenylephrine-induced contraction in vascular smooth muscles is known to be mediated through increase in cytsoplasmic Ca2+through two possible means, i.e., Ca2+ influx via receptor operated channels and subsequent release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores (Graham et al., 1996). The relaxation of phenylephrine-induced contractions on the part of V. odorata at elevated tissue bath concentrations can be viewed on focusing the point that V. odorata like other Ca2+ channel blockers can only block Ca2+ influx through voltage dependent Ca2+ channels and do nothing with Ca2+ influx through receptor operated channels and subsequent increase in intracellular Ca2+ due to release of Ca2+ from intra-cellular stores (Graham et al., 1996). The observed relaxant effect of V. odorata on aorta may provide a scientific basis for the folkloric use of V. odorata in the management of hypertension.
The V. odorata exhibited Ca2+ channel blocking activity in isolated rabbit tissue preparations (i.e., jejunum, trachea and aorta) which can be attributed to the presence of alkaloids (Khalid et al., 2004; Gilani et al., 2005, ), flavonoids (Revuelta et al., 1997; Di-Carlo, 1993) and tannins (Azhar et al., 1997) among the constituents of V. odorata detected in the preliminary phytochemical screening.
Ethical Issue
All the experiments performed were complied with the rulings of Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, Commission on Life Sciences (NRC, 1996), approved by the Ethical Committee of Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan.
References
Ahmad H, Khan SM, Ghafoor S, Ali N. Ethnobotanical study of upper Siran. J Herbs, Spices and Med Plants. 2009; 15: 86-97.
Ahmed T. Calcium antagonists: Potential for asthma therapy. Choices in Resp. Management. 1992; 22: 41-43.
Akhbari M, Batooli H, Kashi FJ. Composition of essential oil and biological activity of extracts of Viola odorata L. from central Iran. Nat Prod Res. 2012; 26: 802–09.
Alireza M, Ali R. Evaluation of sedative and preanesthetic effects of Viola odorata Linn. extract compared with diazepam in rats. Bull. Env. Pharmacol. Life Sci. 2013; 2: 125-31.
Amer A, Mehlhorn H. Repellency effect of forty-one essential oils against aedes, anopheles and culex mosquitoes. Parasitol Res. 2006; 99: 478–90.
Anca T, Philippe V, Ilioara O, Mircea T. Composition of essential oils of Viola tricolor and V. arvensis from Romania. Chem Nat Compounds. 2009; 45: 91-92.
Azhar I, Ahmed SW, Usmanghani K. Tannins: Their chemistry and bioactivity. Karachi, University of Karachi Press, 1997, pp 121-25.
Baquar SR. Viola odorata L. Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Pakistan. Karachi, Printas, 1989, pp 1-100.
Barkatullah, Ibrar M, Ali N, Muhammad N, Meryam E. In vitro pharmacological study and preliminary phytochemical profile of Viola canescens Wall. Ex Roxb. Afri J Pharm Pharmacol. 2012; 6: 1142-46.
Beierbeck H, Saunders JK. Analysis of 13C nuclear magnetic resonance chemical shifts of acyclic hydrocarbons. Canada J Chem. 1980; 58: 1258-65.
Brading AF. Tonic distribution and mechanism of transmembrane ion movements in smooth muscle. In: Smooth muscle. Bulbring E, Brding AF, Jones AW (eds). London, Edward Arnold Press, 1981, pp 65-92.
Brunton L, Parker K, Blumenthal D, Buxton I (eds). Goodman and Gilman’s manual of pharmacology and therapeutics. USA, McGraw-Hill Companies, 1996, p 158.
Bolton TB. Mechanism of action of transmitters and other substances on smooth muscles. Physiolog Rev. 1979; 59: 222-26.
Colgrave ML, Kotze AC, Ireland DC, Wang CK, Craik DJ. The anthelmintic activity of the cyclotides: Natural variants with enhanced activity. Chem Bio Chem, 2008, 9: 1939-45.
Craik DJ, Dal NL, Bond T, Waine C. Plant cyclotides: A unique family of cyclic and knotted proteins that defines the cyclic cystine knot structural motif1. J Molecular Bio. 1999; 294: 1327-36.
Cu JQ, Perineau F, Gaset A. Volatile components of violet leaves. Phytochemistry 1992; 31: 571-73.
Duke JA, Bogenschutz-Godwin MJ, Ducelliar J, Duke PAK. Sweet violet (Viola odorata L.). Handbook of medicinal herbs. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, CRC Press, 2002, p 715.
Ebrahimzadeh MA, Nabavi SM, Nabavi SF, Bahramian F, Bekhradnia AR. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity of H. officinalis L. var. angustifolius, V. odorata, B. hyrcana and C. speciosum. Pak J Pharma Sci. 2010; 23, 29-34.
Evans, W.C. Trease and Evans pharmacognosy. 15th ed. India, Harcourt Brace and Company, 1996.
Farre AJ, Colombo M, Fort M, Gutierrez B. Differential effects of various Ca2+ antagonists. Gen Pharmacol. 1991. 22: 177-81.
Fleckenstein A. Specific pharmacology of calcium in myocardium, cardiac pacemakers, and vascular smooth muscle. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1977; 17: 149-66.
Gilani AH, Ghayur MN, Khalid A, Haq Z, Choudhry MI, Rahman A. Presence of antispasmodic, antidiarrheal, antisecretory, calcium antagonists and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory steroidal alkaloids in Sarcocca saligna. Planta Medica. 2005; 71: 1-6.
Godfraind T, Miller R, Wibo M. Calcium antagonism and calcium entry blockade. Pharmacol Rev. 1986; 38: 312-16.
Gurney AM. Mechanism of drug induced vasodilatation. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1994; 46: 242-51.
Graham RM, Perez DM, Hwa J, Piwsich MT. ά1 adrenergic receptor subtypes, molecular structure, function and signaling. Circulation Res. 1996; 78: 737-49.
Henrick C, Jefferies P. The chemistry of the Euphorbiaceae. VIII. New flavones from Ricinocarpus stylosus. Aus J Chem. 1964; 17: 934-42.
Ireland DC, Colgrave ML, Nguyencong P, Daly NL, Craik DJ. Discovery and characterization of a linear cyclotide from Viola odorata: Implications for the processing of circular proteins. J Mol Bio. 2006; 357: 1522-35.
Janbaz KH, Saqib F. Pharmacological evaluation of Dactyloctenium aegyptium, an indigenous plant used to manage gastrointestinal ailments. Bangladesh J Pharmacol. 2015; 10: 295-302.
Janbaz KH, Zaeem Ahsan M, Saqib F, Imran I, Zia-Ul-Haq M, Abid Rashid M. Scientific basis for use of Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. fruit: Gastrointestinal, respiratory and cardiovascular ailments. PLoS ONE. 2015a; 10: e0118605.
Janbaz KH, Akhtar T, Saqib F, Imran I, Haq MZU, Janaskul C, Feo VD, Moga M. Pharmacological justification of use of Solena heterophylla Lour. in gastrointestinal, respiratory and vascular disorders. J Translational Med. 2015b; 13: 134.
Janbaz KH, Arif J, Saqib F, Imran I, Ashraf M, Haq MZU, Jaafar HZ, Vincenzo DF. In-vitro and in-vivo validation of ethnopharmacological uses of methanol extract of Isodon rugosus Wall. ex Benth (Lamiaceae). BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014a; 14: 14-71.
Janbaz KH, Qayyum A, Saqib F, Imran I, Haq MZU, Feo VD. Bronchodilator, vasodilator and spasmolytic activities of Cymbopogon martini. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2014b; 65: 859-66.
Janbaz KH, Latif MF, Saqib F, Imran I, Haq ZU, Feo VD. Pharmacological effects of Lactuca serriola L. in experimental model of gastrointestinal, respiratory, and vascular ailments. Evid Based Complement Altern Med. 2013, 2013: 1-9.
Karaki H, Ozaki H, Hori M, Mitsui-Saito M, Amano K, Harada K, Miyamoto S, Nakazawa H, Won KJ, Sato K. Calcium movements, distribution and function in smooth muscles. Pharmacol Rev. 1997; 49: 157-230.
Karioti A, Furlan C, Vincieri FF, Bilia AR. Analysis of the constituents and quality control of Viola odorata aqueous preparations by HPLC-DAD and HPLC-ESI-MS. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2011; 399: 1715-23.
Kathi K. The illustrated herb encyclopedia (A complete culinary, cosmetic, medicinal and ornamental guide to herbs). New York, Mallard Press, 1991, p 207.
Keville K. Viola odorata L. In: Illustrated herb encyclopedia. Rosart S (ed.). New York, Michael Friedman Publishing Group Inc., 1991, p 207.
Khalid A, Haq Z, Ghayur MN, Feroz F, Rahman A, Gilani AH, Choudhary MI. Cholinestrase inhibitory and spasmolytic potential of steroidal alkaloids. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2004; 92: 477-84.
Khan MA, Prakash R, Ali S, Aljarbou A, Khan MA. Comparative study of antibacterial activity and toxicity of certain plants used in Unani medicine. Adv Biores. 2011; 2: 10-13.
Khare CP. Indian medicinal plants: An illustrated dictionary. Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 2007, p 706.
Khattak SG, Gilani SN, Ikram M. Antipyretic studies on some indigenous Pakistani medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 1985; 14: 45-51.
Koochek MH, Pipelzadeh MH, Mardani H. The effectiveness of Viola odorata in the prevention and treatment of formalin-induced lung damage in the rat. J Herbs Spices Med Plants. 2003; 10: 95–103.
Mittal S. Thin layer chromatography and high pressure liquid chromatography profiling of plant extracts of Viola odorata Linn. Int J Pharma Bio Sci. 2013; 4: B542–49.
Nadkarni KM. Indian materia medica. Vol. 2, 3rd ed. Mumbai, Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd., 1976, pp 477–88.
Pawar V, Thaker V. In vitro efficacy of 75 essential oils against Aspergillus niger. Mycoses 2006; 49: 316-23.
Prajapati ND, Purohit, SS, Sharma, AK, Kumar T. A handbook of medicinal plants. India, Agrobios Publication, 2004, p 541.
Pullaiah T. Encyclopedia of world medicinal plants, Vol IV. New Delhi, Regency Publications, 2006, p 2048.
Ramezani M, Zarrinkamar F, Bagheri M, Rajabnia, R. Study of environment temperature effect on the antibacterial activity of water extract of different organs of Viola odorata in the different stages of growth. J Babol Univ Med Sci. 2012; 14: 16–21.
Rastogi RP. Compendium of Indian medicinal plants. Vol 2. Lucknow, Central Drug Research Institute, 1979, p 703.
Revuelta MP, Cantabrana B, Hidalgo A. Depolarization dependent effect of flavonoids in rat uterine smooth muscle contraction elicited by CaCl2. Gen Pharmacol. 1997; 29: 847-57.
Rosengren KJ, Daly NL, Plan MR, Waine C, Craik DJ. Twists, knots, and rings in proteins. J Biol Chem. 2003; 278: 8606-16.
Said HM. Hamdard pharmacographic indica: Special issue: The Institute of Health and Tibbi Research under the auspices of Hamdard National Foundation, Pakistan, 1972, pp 225-89.
Saqib F, Janbaz KH, Latif MF, Gilani AH, Bashir S. Ethnopharmacological studies on antispasmodic, bronchodilator and antiplatelet aggregation activities of Blepharis edulis Pers. Asian J Nat App Sci. 2012; 1: 33-45.
Siddiqi HS, Mehmood MH, Rehman NU, Gilani AH. Studies on the antihypertensive and antidyslipidemic activities of Viola odorata leaves extract. Lipids Health Dis. 2012; 11: 6.
Svangård E, Göransson U, Smith D, Verma C, Backlund A, Bohlin L, Claeson P. Primary and 3-D modelled structures of two cyclotides from Viola odorata. Phytochemistry 2003, 64: 135-42.
Van Rossum JM. Cumulative concentration-response curves techniques for making concentration response curves in isolated organs and evaluation of drug parameters. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther. 1963; 143: 299-330.
Vishal A, Parveen K, Pooja S, Kannappan N, Kumar S. Diuretic, laxative and toxicity studies of Viola odorata aerial parts. Pharmacol Online. 2009; 1: 739-48.
